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Burmese

Burmese script, signs and official papers turned into text

Burmese letters are built almost entirely from circles and curves, a habit that goes back to writing on palm leaves, where a straight stroke would slice along the fibre and split the leaf. The script also runs one word straight into the next with no space to show where a word ends, and stacks a second consonant beneath the first wherever a syllable needs one. Evidano reads Burmese from palm-leaf manuscripts, everyday signage and official forms, and sets the transcription beside the image so every stacked consonant and every word break can be checked.

Sample pages

Real pages from public collections, shown beside their transcriptions. Pages whose transcription is still being checked are marked.

A fanned stack of gilded palm-leaf manuscript pages bordered in red lacquer with gold roundels, beside a matching gilded wooden cover
Sample 1. A fan of gilded and lacquered palm-leaf folios from a nineteenth-century Burmese Kammavācā, an ordination text for Buddhist monks, held by the San Diego Public Library. Each leaf is bordered in red lacquer with gold roundels and carries several lines of the square, boxy variant of Burmese script reserved for this kind of manuscript, next to its carved and gilded wooden cover.

San Diego Public Library, 19th century · Source · CC0 1.0 · Kaldari

Transcription being verified

The Kammavācā liturgy was printed in nineteenth-century Pali editions such as Frankfurter’s; matching this particular, overlapping fan of leaves to a specific edition’s line numbers has not been attempted.

What the model is told to watch for: Produce a diplomatic transcription in Burmese.

A tiled wall covered with printed and handwritten notices in Burmese and Chinese, including a red gold-shop advertisement and a yellow courier-service poster
Sample 2. A wall of notices outside a shop on Huaxin Street in Zhonghe, New Taipei, a neighbourhood with a large Burmese community, photographed in 2020. Printed Burmese advertisements for a gold shop and a parcel courier to Yangon sit beside a printed bilingual Chinese-Burmese notice, their Burmese all in the same rounded, spaceless print used throughout Myanmar.

Source · CC BY-SA 4.0

Transcription being verified

Ephemeral commercial and community notices; no published transcription exists for this wall.

What the model is told to watch for: Produce a diplomatic transcription in Burmese.

A printed Myanmar election ballot paper with numbered instructions, six candidate rows each showing a name, party and symbol, and a handwritten entry at the foot
Sample 3. An official ballot paper from Myanmar’s 2020 general election, printed for constituency no. 6 of the Amyotha Hluttaw in Mandalay Region and photographed on a sheet stamped repeatedly by the Union Election Commission. Numbered voting instructions in Burmese head the paper, followed by rows giving each candidate’s name, party and party symbol, with the polling-station officer’s signature and name added by hand at the foot.

Source · CC BY-SA 4.0 · Kantabon

Transcription being verified

An official ballot paper; the Union Election Commission publishes candidate lists but not a transcription of this specific paper.

What the model is told to watch for: Produce a diplomatic transcription in Burmese.

A browned, ruled sheet of round handwritten Burmese, its clauses numbered down a narrow left-hand column, with a yellow ribbon tie and pencil accession marks at the left edge
Sample 4. The opening page of a Burmese manuscript copy of the Treaty of Yandabo, the agreement of February 1826 that ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, kept by the National Archives of Myanmar. A centred title heads the sheet, a five-line preamble names the negotiators on each side and gives the date by the Burmese era, and the articles that follow are ruled into a table: the ordinal name of each one — ပဌမ, ဒုတိယ, တတိယ and so on — stands in a narrow left-hand column, the figure ၁ in a second, and the clause itself fills the wide column beside them. The paper is browned and creased, ink from the facing leaf shows through across the head, and pencil accession marks sit in the margin next to a yellow ribbon tie.

National Archives of Myanmar, 1826 · Source · Public domain

Transcription

The whole of the page shown — the title, the preamble and articles one to seven, the seventh breaking off at the foot of the sheet where it runs on to the next page — as proofread on Burmese Wikisource from this same scan. The text is set out clause by clause rather than following the manuscript’s line breaks, and the original spelling, the Burmese numerals and the ။ written between phrases are kept as they stand; the wiki markup that centres the title has been dropped.

ရန္တပိုစာချုပ်ကြီး၁၁ခန်း
ဣန္ဒယတိုင်းကိုအစိုးရသော။အင်္ဂလိပ်ကုမ္ပဏီရှင်ဘုရင်က။ခန့်ထားသောအရေးပိုင်ဗိုလ်ချုပ်မင်းကြီး။မှူးမတ်ကြီးအာဇီဘောကံဘက်။အရေးပိုင်ရောဘစ်စံ။ဧရာဝတီမြစ်တွင်ရှိသော။အင်္ဂလိပ်တို့က။သမ္ဘာန်များကိုအုပ်စိုးသော။မင်းစပ်တို့နှင့်။မြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်ကခန့်ထားသော။လယ်ကိုင်းမြို့စားဝန်ကြီး။မဟာမင်းလှကျော်ထင်။ငွေခွန်ဝန်အတွင်းဝန်။မင်းကြီးမဟာမင်းလှသီဟသူတို့က။သက္ကရာဇ်၁၁၈၇ခု။တပေါင်းလပြည့်ကျော်၄ရက်နေ့။ရန္တပိုရွာမှါတွေ့၍။ကုမ္ပဏီမင်း။မြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်။အချင်းချင်းစစ်ငြိမ်း၍။မိတ်ဿဟာယဘွဲ့သောစာချုပ်ကား။
ပဌမ ၁ မှါအင်္ဂလိပ်မင်းနှင့်။မြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်တို့သည်။စစ်ငြိမ်း၍။မိတ်ဿဟာယ။အစည်အဆက်ဖြစ်စေ။
ဒုတိယ ၁ မှါမြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်ကအာသံပြည်။အက္ကပတ်ပြည်။ဝေသာလီပြည်တို့ကိုအစိုးမပိုင်။နောံတစ်ဘန်မစီရင်ရ။
မဏိပူရမြို့မှါလည်း။ဂမ္ဘီရရှိန်တို့သည်။မိမိပြည်သို့ပြန်၍။မင်းပြုလုပ်နေလိုလျှင်။မြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်က။အဆီးအတားအနှောင့်အရှက်မပြုရ။နေစေရမည်
တတိယ ၁ မှါနောံတဘန်ပြည်ကြီး၂ပြည်။အပိုင်းအခြားကို။ငြင်းခုံရန်အကြောင်းမရှိရအောင်။အင်္ဂလိပ်မင်းသည်။တိုက်၍အောင်ခဲ့ပြီးသော။ရခိုင်။ရမ်းပြဲ။မာန်အောင်။သံတွဲတည်းဟူသော။ရခိုင်ပြည်ကြီးကိုယူ၍။မြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်သည်အစိုးမပိုင်ရ။ယိုးမဖိုးခေါင်တောင်တမ်း။မော်တင်စွန်း။စေတီကြီးထိ။စပ်ကြားအပိုင်းအခြားဖြစ်စေ။နောံမှအပိုင်းအခြားကိုငြင်းခုံရန်ရှိလျှင်။အင်္ဂလိပ်မင်း မြန်မာမင်း။ခန့်ထားသောသူတို့သည်။အထက်နယ်နိမိတ်အတိုင်း။မှန်ကန်စွာစီရင်စေ။ခန့်ထားသောသူတို့လည်း။အရာရှိမှူးမတ်လူကောင်းဖြစ်စေရမည်
စတုတ္ထ ၁ မှါမြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်သည်။အင်္ဂလိပ်ကို။ယေး။ဓားဝယ်။မြိတ်။တနင်္သာရီမြို့ရွာ။နယ်နိမိတ်တောင်ကမ်းကျွန်းများနှင့်တကွ အပိုင်ပေးသည်။သံလွင်မြစ်သည်အပိုင်းအခြားဖြစ်ရမည်။နောံမှအပိုင်းအခြားကိုငြမ်းခုံရန်ရှိလျှင်။အထက်ဆိုခဲ့ပြီးသည့်အတိုင်းစီရင်စေ
ပဉ္စမ ၁ မှါမြန်မာရှင်ဘုရင်သည်။ပြည်ကြီး၂ပြည်။အစည်မိတ်သဟာရဘွဲ့စေခြင်သော။စေတနာအလိုထင်ရှားစေခြင်းငှါ။အင်္ဂလိပ်မင်းစစ်တိုက်၍။ကုန်ခဲ့ပြီးသောစရိတ်အ္နက်။အနည်းငယ်ပြေရအောင်။၁ိသုံးဒင်္ဂါးရူပီပျားရေ။တကုဋေကိုပေးရမည်
ဆဋ္ဌ ၁ ယခုစစ်ဖြစ်ကြသည်အတွင်း။ကုလါးဘက်သို့ဝင်စားသည်မြန်မာ။မြန်မာဘက်သို့ဝင်စားသည်ကုလါး။တို့မှာအလိုလိုဝင်စားစေ။အဘယ်သူမျှတဘက်က။တဘက်သို့ဝင်စားသည်အတွက်။ရာဇဝတ်မခံအနောင့်အရှက်မရှိစေရ
သတ္တမ  ၁   မှါ။ပြည်ကြီး၂ပါး။ယခုဘွဲ့သောမိတ်သဟာရမြဲစေခြင်းငှာ။အင်္ဂလိပ်မင်းခန့်ထားသော။အရေးပိုင်တယောံအခြွေအရံလူ၅၀။လ္နက်ကိရိယာအစုံနှင့်။မြန်မာဘုရင်မြို့တော်မှါနေစေ။၎င်နည်းမြန်မာမင်းကခန့်ထားသောအရေးပိုင်တယောံ။အခြွေအရံလူ၅၀။လ္နက်ကိရိယာအစုံနှင့်။ကုမ္ပဏီမြို့တော်မှါနေစေ။ကုလါးပြည်

Transcription from ရန္တပိုစာချုပ်, proofread page 1, via Burmese Wikisource (CC BY-SA 4.0).

A printed book page in Burmese: a running head above a rule and a worn ornamental band, a letterspaced line of Pali in Burmese script, then solid paragraphs of heavy letterpress type
Sample 5. A page from ပူရဏ်ကျမ်း, a Burmese religious and didactic compendium printed at Rangoon in 1906 and compiled by the Shwedaung Lehtat-kyaung Sayadaw Shin Munindābhidhaja. A running head and a page number in Burmese numerals sit above a rule and a dark band of printer’s ornament; under it the Pali homage to the Buddha is set letterspaced in Burmese script, and the text that follows is in a dense, heavy fount. The spaces in those lines fall between phrases, not between words, so when a line reaches the measure a word simply carries over onto the next one with nothing to mark the join.

Source · Public domain

Transcription

The 22 lines of the text block, as proofread on Burmese Wikisource from this same scan, one transcribed line to one printed line, including the words that break across a line end. The running head, the page number and the ornamental band above the text are not part of it, and the older contraction ၎်း for လည်း is kept where the page prints it.

နမောတဿ ဘဂဝတော အရဟတော သမ္မာသမ္ဗုဒ္ဓဿ
ဟံသာဝတီ ရန်ကုန်မြို့ အစိုးရလွှတ်တော်က ကြော်ငြာ
ဆင့်ဆိုအပ်သော အမိန့်တော်အတိုင်း အမျိုးလေးပါး လူအ
များတို့ မှတ်သားလေ့လာရန် ဓမ္မဂန်ဘတ်စာကို ကောင်း
စွာ စီရင်ပေအံ့။
အရပ်ရပ်အမျိုးတို့ဘာသာ လိုက်နာကျင့်ယူအပ်သော
သတိသမ္ပဇညတရားမှစ၍ သီလသမာဓိတရားများ၏ အ
ကြောင်း။
လောကသုံးပါးတို့၏ ဦးညွတ်ရာ ဆရာဖြစ်တော်မူသော
မြတ်စွာဘုရားသည် ဇေတဝန်ကျောင်းနှိုက် သီတင်းသုံးနေ
သောအခါ ငါးရာကုန်သော ဒါယကာတို့သည် ဥပုသ်ဆောံ
တည်ခြင်းငှာ ကျောင်းတော်သို့လာကုန်၍ အင်္ဂါရှစ်ပါးနှင့်
ပြည့်စုံသော ဥပုသ်သီလကို ခံယူဆောက်တည်ကြသည်တွင်
ဘုရားသခင်က "ဒါယကာတို့ ယနေ့ ဥပုသ်ဆောက်တည်ခြင်း
ကို ပြုကြကုန်သလော" ဟု မေးတော်မူ၏။ ဆောက်တည်
ပါကြောင်းကို လျှောက်လျှင် "ဒါယကာတို့ သင်တို့သည် အလွန်
ကောင်းမြတ်သောအမှုကို ပြုကြပေကုန်၏။ ဤဥပုသ်ဆောက်
တည်ခြင်းသည်ကား ပညာရှိလှကုန်သော ရှေးသူဟောင်းတို့
၏ ကောင်းမြတ်သော ကျင့်ရိုးကျင့်စဉ်ပေတည်း။ ရှေးပညာ
ရှိတို့သည် မိမိကိုယ်၌ ရာဂသည်၎်း၊ ဒေါသသည်၎်း မာန အစ
ရှိသော ကိလေသာတို့သည်၎်း ဖြစ်လာကုံလတ်သော် ထို
ကိလေသာတို့ကို နှိပ်နင်းခြင်းငှါ ဥပုသ်သုံးခြင်းကို ပြုကြကုန်

Transcription from ပူရဏ်ကျမ်း, proofread page 76, via Burmese Wikisource (CC BY-SA 4.0).

What Burmese text looks like on the page

Burmese writing descends from a Brahmi-derived script that reached the Irrawaddy valley by way of Mon and Pyu intermediaries; the earliest substantial dated example of the language is the Myazedi inscription of 1113, which gives the same text in Pyu, Mon, Pali and Burmese on four faces of the same stone. From an early date the script was copied mainly onto dried palm leaves with a metal stylus, and, exactly as with its Sinhalese and Khmer relatives, a straight line risked splitting the leaf along the grain, so letters rounded into the circles and loops that still define Burmese print today.

A Burmese sentence runs on without spaces between its words; a gap in a printed or handwritten line marks a break between clauses or phrases, not the boundary of a word, so working out where one word stops and the next begins is a matter of reading the sentence rather than reading the spacing. Consonant clusters are shown either by stacking a second consonant directly beneath the first or by attaching a medial sign — a small hook, loop or tail for y, r, w or h — to the side of the main letter, so the same base consonant can look different again depending on what follows it.

Manuscript Burmese has its own material habits. Parabaik are long sheets of mulberry-bark paper folded accordion-style into a narrow book; a plain black parabaik, its paper darkened and written on in white steatite chalk, served for court records, drafts and administrative notes, while a painted parabaik illustrated a chronicle or a Buddhist narrative in colour with captions worked into the margins. Ordination texts for Buddhist monks, by contrast, were usually copied onto lacquered and gilded palm leaf in a squared, boxier variant of the script reserved for that purpose. Since the nineteenth century, mission and state printing have settled Burmese into the rounded typeface seen in books, forms and signage across the country today.

Why ordinary OCR struggles here

No spaces to mark where a word ends

A line of Burmese text gives no visual boundary between one word and the next, so a system has to work out the division from the language itself. Guessing wrong attaches a suffix to the wrong word or runs two separate words together as if they were one.

Stacked and medial consonants that change a letter’s shape

A consonant written beneath another, or a medial sign attached to the side of the letter before it, does not look like that same letter written on its own. Reading a stacked or medial form as an unrelated letter, or dropping it as decoration, changes the syllable it belongs to.

Round letters that differ by one small loop

Many Burmese consonants share the same basic circular shape and are told apart only by where a loop opens, closes or doubles back on itself. That distinction is the first thing a worn manuscript, a small printed caption or a low-resolution photograph loses.

Lacquer, gilding and folded paper

Kammavaca leaves are lacquered and gilded so the letters sit slightly raised or indented rather than simply inked on a flat surface, and a parabaik folds accordion-style, so a photograph often shows several panels at an angle with the text bending near each fold.

Who works with this material

Buddhist manuscript and Kammavācā scholars

Reading ordination texts and Pali manuscripts on lacquered palm leaf means keeping the squared Kammavaca letterforms, and their stacked and medial consonants, distinct from the rounder printed forms they most resemble.

Historians of the Konbaung court and administration

Parabaik registers and illustrated chronicles are a primary source for pre-colonial Burmese government, and a transcription needs to keep captions, marginal notes and the main narrative separate rather than merged into one block.

Election monitors and civil-society organisations

Ballot papers, candidate lists and official notices need to be transcribed quickly and accurately, matching every candidate name and party symbol to the printed row it belongs to.

Diaspora community organisations

Notices, advertisements and community boards put up by Burmese communities abroad need reliable transcription for translation, moderation or archiving, even where one wall mixes several languages and hands.

Getting the best transcription

    Step 1

    Say whether word breaks should be inserted

    Modern digital Burmese is sometimes written with spaces between phrases rather than words. Specify whether you want breaks added for readability, left out as in the source, or matched exactly to what is printed or written.

    Step 2

    Ask for stacked and medial consonants to be kept as syllables

    Tell the model to transcribe a stacked consonant or a medial sign as part of the syllable it belongs to, not as a separate letter, so a cluster comes back as the single sound it represents.

    Step 3

    Flag lacquered or gilded manuscripts as a special material

    On a Kammavaca or other lacquered leaf, say so, so raised or indented letters are read as the script they are rather than treated as damage to be smoothed over.

    Step 4

    Test on the busiest section first

    Run a folded or overlapping parabaik panel, or a stamped and hand-annotated form, before the rest of a batch. If the model separates print, stamp and handwriting correctly there, plainer pages need only a light check.

Frequently asked questions

Can it work out where one Burmese word ends and the next begins?
Yes, from the sentence itself. Burmese text carries no spaces between words, so word boundaries are inferred from grammar and vocabulary rather than read off the spacing, and you can ask for the result with or without breaks inserted.
How does it read stacked and medial consonants?
A stacked consonant or a medial sign for y, r, w or h is read as part of the syllable it modifies, not as an unrelated extra letter, so a consonant cluster comes through as the single sound it represents.
Can it read a Kammavaca or parabaik manuscript, not just modern print?
Yes. The squared Kammavaca letterforms used for ordination texts and the accordion-folded pages of a parabaik are each read on their own terms, including captions and marginal notes on an illustrated page.
Can it transcribe an official form like a ballot paper, including stamps and handwriting?
Yes. Printed instructions and candidate rows, an official stamp, and a handwritten entry are treated as separate elements on the page rather than merged into a single block of text.
Can it handle a sign or notice that mixes Burmese with another language?
Yes. Each language on a mixed sign or notice board is transcribed in place, so a bilingual notice comes back as separate, aligned text rather than one language overwriting the other.
What about an old letterpress book or a nineteenth-century archival document?
Both are read as Burmese rather than as damage: the heavy fount of an early Rangoon press, where a word runs over the end of a justified line with nothing to mark the join, and a browned archival sheet in a rounded office hand. Older contracted spellings are left as they stand instead of being modernised.

Related scripts and pages

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